Nj&235 goditje t&235 fort&235 ekonomis&235 s&235 sfilitur shqiptare. Sipas Institutit t&235 Statistikave (INSTAT), n&235 tremujorin e dyt&235 t&235 2020, produkti i p&235 rgjithsh&235 m bruto ra me 10.23 krahasuar me t&235 nj&235 jt&235 n periudh&235 t&235 vitit t&235 shkuar (2020a). Si&231 shihet edhe n&235 Figur&235 n 1, sektor&235 t m&235 t&235 prekur ishinSubdivisions.

The lattes survey on innovation capacities of SMEs in Albania found out that innovation activity in enterprises results in disproportion with their size.Indeksi i &199 mimeve t&235 Konsumit (I&199 K), i llogaritur dhe i publikuar nga INSTAT-i, sh&235 rben p&235 r t&235 matur inflacionin total. Por, vlerat e inflacionit total mund t&235 reflektojn&235 edhe veprimin e faktor&235 ve me natyr&235 t&235 p&235 rkohshme, apo t&235 goditjeve q&235 ndodhin vet&235 m nj&235 her&235 dhe q&235 shuhen me kalimin e koh&235 s. Inflacioni i vler&235 suar duke p&235 rjashtuar ndikimet nga luhatjet afatshkurtra. Findings from a survey on innovation in SMEs conducted by the Institute of Statistics (INSTAT) shed light upon important trends from the sector.

In addition to this variability across societies, substantial heterogeneity also exists within societies over time. Although women compose roughly one-half of the worldвЂ™s international migrant population ( Zlotnik 1999), the proportion varies considerably by region and in some countries (such as the Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia), the majority of recent emigrants are female ( Martin 2007 United Nations 2006). Throughout this period, however, womenвЂ™s migration behavior appears more directly aligned with household-level factors, and there is little evidence to suggest that increased female migration signals rising behavioral independence among Albanian women.A central feature of the complex relationship between gender and migration is the shifting sex composition of international migration ( Castles and Miller 2003 Cerrutti and Massey 2001 Donato 1993). Using information on the dependency of female migration to the household demographic structure as well as the sensitivity of female migration to household-level shocks, we show how household-level constraints and incentives affect male and female migration differently. Female migration, which is shown to be strongly associated with education, wealth, and social capital, appears responsive to economic incentives and constraints. Based on discrete-time hazard models, the analysis shows a dramatic increase in male migration and a gradual and uneven expansion of the female proportion of this international migration.

2006 King and Vullnetari 2003). Following several decades of closure and within a few short years following the opening of its borders to international migration in 1990, Albania witnessed a remarkable out-migration, primarily to Greece and Italy, which led to the departure of about one-fifth of the countryвЂ™s population ( Carletto et al. Yet, the literature remains mired in uncertainty regarding the actual mechanisms that promote or hinder both increased female migration and the shifting gender composition of migration over time.We focus on gender and migration from Albania, which is aptly labeled a вЂњunique migration laboratoryвЂќ ( King 2005). These latter cases exemplify the feminization of labor migrationвЂ”a process evident across a large number of societies ( Castles and Miller 2003). Similarly, empirical evidence from the Philippines and Sri Lanka, where men composed the majority of migrants for much of the twentieth century, shows that women made up more than 60% of out-migrants from each country by the end of the century ( Barber 2000). This pattern is particularly associated with migration flows that are labor-motivated, as in the Mexican caseвЂ”the focus of much of the migration literatureвЂ”where women compose a steadily increasing share of the migration flow ( Donato 1993, 1999 Durand and Massey 1992 Massey, Durand, and Malone 2002).

However, little, if any, empirical evidence describes the evolution of the gender composition of migration for a nation over time, from an initial state of no migration to one in which migration becomes a normative practice. Current understanding builds heavily on two studies of the temporal dynamics of migration from Mexico ( Donato 1993 Massey, Goldring, and Durand 1994). The descriptive focuses on whether and at what rate women are incorporated into a migration stream initially dominated by males. The retrospective nature of our data and the lack of migration prior to 1990 provide an opportunity to overcome numerous concerns regarding causal validity.Our study includes both descriptive and analytical components. We use 2005 survey data from Albania to examine the pattern as well as mechanisms that underlie the gender and migration relationship.

Although efforts to incorporate women fully in the economy and society did not fully succeed under CommunismвЂ”and gave way to increasing discrimination in the post-Communist eraвЂ”the private status of women within households made far less progress, and enduring norms continue to maintain womenвЂ™s low status, with restricted agency and heavy dependence on male household members ( UNDP 2005). In contrast to many other settings, such as Mexico, women in Albania experienced relatively egalitarian labor markets and educational systems at the time the country was opening while remaining tightly constrained within the household by traditional and patriarchal power relations ( Falkingham and Gjonca 2001 Lawson, McGregor, and Saltmarshe 2000). A compelling feature of the Albanian case is the distinct forms of inequality experienced by women and how they relate to migration.

Both forms of micro-level constraints may shed light on how inequalities reproduced in the household influence gender and migration.A deeper question underlies the specific hypotheses tested in this article: does increasing female migration signal an emergent independence of female action? The questions of independence and agency remain core issues in the context of gender and migration ( Hondagneu-Sotelo 1992 Morokvasic 1984), yet surprisingly little empirical work explicitly tests agency in this context. At the micro level, we examine how male and female migration outcomes are determined both by a householdвЂ™s sex composition and by household-level health and income shocks. More specifically, at the macro level, we investigate the role of inequalities in the returns to education and how they may affect the association between gender and migration.

This has meant increasing attention to risk and credit constraints, for example, as primary motivations underlying migration strategies ( Rosenzweig and Stark 1989 Taylor 1986). Later developments in this field, coming under the title of the new economics of labor migration, have focused on the context and boundaries of decision-making and have pushed both economists and noneconomists to consider the complex household-level strategies underlying migration (see Stark 1991). The economic approach, begun in the neoclassical tradition and further developed by Todaro (1969 1976), has emphasized the expected gains to potential migrants and implications of policy programs that aim to reduce rural out-migration. While avoiding a direct entanglement with long-standing debates on agency ( Hitlin and Elder 2007 Loyal and Barnes 2001), we aim to shed light on the growth or decline of independent female action as evident from the evolution of female participation in the international migration process.The complexity of the international migration process as well as the interdisciplinary nature of scholarship in this field has led to a particularly broad range of theoretical approaches for the study of migration. However, the unique nature of the Albanian migration exodus and the richness of our data provide an opportunity to shed some light on these questions. The circularity of causal factors connecting migration, gender status, and development is partly responsible for this lack of clarity ( Massey et al.

These, in turn, have altered the thinking of economists who in recent years have incorporated network mechanisms directly into their models ( Munshi 2003 Winters, de Janvry, and Sadoulet 2001).Yet, the economic and the sociological approaches have only recently begun to contribute insight into the role of women in migration ( Cerrutti and Massey 2001). 2007 Massey and Espinosa 1997).

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